Transitive +st stems. The +st transitivizer occurs with some roots that do not take the+nt transitivizer (e.g. pul+st-xʷ "you beat him up." It also forms causative stems (e.g. xʷuy+st+n "I took it (there)." and, together with the prefix c-, customary stems (e.g. c-wik+st-xʷ "you used to see it (customarily)" -- vs wikntxʷ "you saw it." Here I chart the forms of the weak stem wy̓+st "to finish something."
| +st stem | weak +st stem (suffix-stressed) | root | transitivizer | object marker | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -in | wy̓stin | I finished it. |
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -ixʷ | wy̓stixʷ | You finished it. |
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -is | wy̓stis | (S)he finished it. |
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -im | wy̓stim | We finished it. |
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -ip | wy̓stip | You all finished it. |
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -is-lx | wy̓stislx | They finished it. |
The root √wy̓ happens to be a root that participates in the formation of both weak and strong stems, each with subtle semantic differences. More on this topic later. Here is the chart of stem-stressed forms:
| +st stem | strong +st stem (stem-stressed) | root | transitivizer | object marker | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -n | wiy̓stn | I quit it. |
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -xʷ | wiy̓stxʷ | You quit it. |
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -s | wiy̓sts | (S)he quit it. |
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -m | wiy̓stm | We quit it. |
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -p | wiy̓stp | You all quit it. |
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -s-lx | wiy̓stslx | They quit it. |
The variants of the transitive subject pronouns correlate with the valence of the transitive stems. Strong stems (with stress on the stem) take vowelless person markers; weak stems take the variants with the (stressed) vowel. The -t variant of the first person plural subject occurs after -m the second person singular object of second set of object markers.
Here I give some examples of forms with 1st person object (strong stems).
| 1st object | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | wik | +nt | -xʷ | kʷu wikntxʷ | You saw me |
| kʷu | wik | Ø | -s | kʷu wiks | (S)he saw me |
| kʷu | wik | Ø | -s-lx | kʷu wikslx | They saw me |
| kʷu | wik | +nt | -p | kʷu wikntp | You all saw me/us |
Here I give some examples of forms with 1st person object (weak stems).
| 1st object | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu‿ | ɬc | +nt | -ixʷ | kʷu‿ ɬcntixʷ | You petted me |
| kʷu | ɬc | +nt | -is | kʷu ɬcntis | (S)he petted me |
| kʷu | ɬc | +nt | -is-lx | kʷu ɬcntislx | They petted me |
| kʷu | ɬc | +nt | -ip | kʷu ɬcntip | You all petted me/us |
Here I chart the way Cv-Ok differentiates between first person singular object (me) and first person plural object (us) with third person subject forms (strong stem):
| 1st object | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | wik | +nt | -s-lx | kʷu wikslx | They saw me |
| kʷu | wik | +nt | -m | kʷu wikntm | They saw us |
Here I chart the way Cv-Ok differentiates between first person singular object (me) and first person plural object (us) with third person subject forms (weak stem):
| 1st object | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ɬc | +nt | -is-lx | kʷu ɬcntislx | They petted me |
| kʷu | ɬc | +nt | -im | kʷu ɬcntim | They petted us |
The -(i)m affix of these forms can be labeled "impersonal." More on the subject later.
Ditransitive stems: +ɬt, +x(í)t
The object markers of the +nt and +st stems mark a direct object (wik+nt-s-n "I saw you;" kʷu pul+st+xʷ "you beat me"). The object markers of the +ɬt and +x(i)t stems mark a sort of dative of interest or possession; and a benefactee, respectively. Often, however, +ɬt and +x(i)t stems are interchangeable, with subtle differences of meanings encoded in other grammatical ways. So the object markers are now a sort of indirect object markers.
The object markers of the +ɬt stems are the same as the object markers of the +nt stems. The object markers of the +x(í)t stems are the same as the object markers of the +st stems. A direct object is expressed by an intransitive nominal stem, or is implied.
Before I give tables with complete paradigms of each stem (strong, weak, +ɬt, +x(í)t), I will try to show with examples of both stems in context how the ditransitive stems function.
Examples of +ɬt and +x(i)t stems with context
| possessor/benefactee | stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ɬkim | +ɬt | Ø | kʷu ɬkím̓əɬt inlkapú. | Sew my coat! |
| kʷu | ɬkim | +ɬt | Ø | kʷu ɬkím̓əɬt ikɬkapú. | Sew my a coat! |
Here we see how in-lkapú "my coat" and i-kɬ-kapú "mycoat to-be" interact with the transitive stem to encode two different propositions: in the first example I already have a coat; in the second I am asking you to make me a coat.
| possessor/benefactee | stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | siq̓ | +ɬt | -s | kʷu síq̓əɬt islíp̓. | He split my wood. |
| kʷu | siq̓ | +xt | -s | kʷu síq̓əxts t slip̓ way̓ápi. | way̓ápi split my wood (for me). |
Here the difference in meaning is insignificant. In both constructions the wood is split for me / my benefit.
| stem | possessor/benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac | +ɬt | Ø | -ís | ʕacəɬtís iʔ tətw̓ít iʔ kəwáps. | She tied the boy’s horse. |
| ʕac | +xít | Ø | -s | ʕacxíts iʔ tətw̓ít t kɬkəwáps. | She tied a horse for the boy. |
In this set of examples the different markings of the object (-kwap) match those of the ɬkim set, each with a different stem, first ʕac+ɬt-, then ʕac+xit-. kwaps "his horse," kɬkwaps "his horse-to-be."
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with third person possessor, strong stem (stress on the root):
| strong stem | possessor | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -n | miƛ̓tn. | I painted his X. |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -xʷ | miƛ̓ɬtxʷ. | You painted her X. |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -s | miƛ̓ɬts. | He painted her X. |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -m | miƛ̓ɬtm. | We painted her X. |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -p | miƛ̓ɬtp. | You folks painted her X. |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -s-lx | miƛ̓ɬtslx. | They painted her X. |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with third person possessor, weak stem (stress on the suffix):
| weak stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -in | sq̓ɬtin. | I split his wood. |
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -ixʷ | sq̓ɬtixʷ. | You split his wood. |
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -is | sq̓ɬtis. | He split his wood. |
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -im | sq̓ɬtim. | We split his wood. |
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -ip | sq̓ɬtip. | You folks split his wood. |
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -is-lx | sq̓ɬtislx. | They split his wood. |
Here is a paradigm of +xt with third person benefactee, strong stem (stress on the root):
| strong stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -n | k̓ʷul̕xtn. | I fixed it for him. |
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -xʷ | k̓ʷul̕xtxʷ. | You tied it for her. |
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -s | k̓ʷul̕xts. | He fixed it for her. |
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -m | k̓ʷul̕xtm. | We fixed it for her. |
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -p | k̓ʷul̕xtp. | You folks fixed it for her. |
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -s-lx | k̓ʷul̕xtslx. | They fixed it for her. |
Here is a paradigm of +xít with third person benefactee, weak stem. Note that in this paradigm the stress is on +xít, and not on the subject marker:
| weak stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -n | ʕacxítn. | I tied it for her. |
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -xʷ | ʕacxítxʷ. | You tied it for her. |
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -s | ʕacxíts. | He tied it for her. |
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -m | ʕacxítm. | We tied it for her. |
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -p | ʕacxítp. | You folks tied it for her. |
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -s-lx | ʕacxítslx. | They tied it for her. |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person possessor, strong stem. Note the coalescnce of -s -s into -s in the second person possessor and third person subject:
| strong stem | possessor | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | -n | miƛ̓tsn. | I painted your... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | -s | miƛ̓ɬts. | She painted your... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | -t | miƛ̓ɬtst. | We painted your... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | -s-lx | miƛ̓ɬtslx. | They painted your... |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person possessor, weak stem. Note the coalescnce of -s -s into -s in the second person possessor and third person subject:
| weak stem | possessor | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac+ɬt | -s | -in | ʕacɬtsín. | I tied your... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -s | -is | ʕacɬtsís. | She tied it your... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -s | -im | ʕacɬtsím. | We tied your... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -s | -is-lx | ʕacɬtsíslx. | They tied your... |
Here is a paradigm of +xít with second person benefactee, strong stem:
| strong stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| k̓ʷul̓+xt | -m | -n | kʷul̓xtmn. | I fixed it for you. |
| k̓ʷul̓+xt | -m | -s | kʷul̓xtms. | He fixed it for you. |
| k̓ʷul̓+xt | -m | -t | k̓ʷul̓xtmt. | We fixed it for you. |
| k̓ʷul̓+xt | -m | -s-lx | k̓ʷul̓xtmslx. | They fixed it for you. |
Here is a paradigm of +xít with second person benefactee, weak stem:
| weak stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac+xit | -m | -n | ʕacxítmn. | I tied it for you. |
| ʕac+xit | -m | -s | ʕacxítms. | She tied it for you. |
| ʕac+xit | -m | -t | ʕacxítmt. | We tied it for you. |
| ʕac+xit | -m | -s-lx | ʕacxítmslx. | They tied it for you. |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person possessor, strong stem:
| possessor | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -xʷ | kʷu miƛ̓txʷ. | You painted my... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | miƛ̓ɬts. | She painted my... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -p | kʷu miƛ̓ɬtp. | You folks painted my... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -s-lx | kʷu miƛ̓ɬslx. | They painted my... |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person possessor, weak stem.
| possessor | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -xʷ | kʷu ʕacɬtíxʷ. | You tied my... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -is | kʷu ʕacɬtís. | She tied my... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -ip | kʷu ʕacɬtíp. | You folks tied my... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -is-lx | kʷu ʕacɬtíslx. | They tied my... |
Here is a paradigm of +xit with first person benefactee, strong stem.
| benefactee | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -xʷ | kʷu miƛ̓xtxʷ. | You painted it for me. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -s | miƛ̓xts. | She painted it for me. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -p | kʷu miƛ̓xtp. | You folks painted it for me. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -s-lx | kʷu miƛ̓xtslx. | They painted it for me. |
Here is a paradigm of +xít with first person benefactee, weak stem.
| benefactee | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -xʷ | kʷu ʕacxítxʷ. | You tied it for me. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -s | kʷu ʕacxíts. | She tied it for me. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -p | kʷu ʕacxítp. | You folks tied it for me. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -s-lx | kʷu ʕacxítslx. | They tied it for me. |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person plural possessor, strong stem (note the marking of third person subject):
| possessor | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -xʷ | kʷu miƛ̓txʷ. | You painted our... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | miƛ̓ɬts. | She painted our... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -p | kʷu miƛ̓ɬtp. | You folks painted our... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -m | kʷu miƛ̓ɬtm. | They painted our... |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person plural possessor, weak stem (note the marking of third person subject):
| possessor | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -xʷ | kʷu ʕacɬtíxʷ. | You tied our... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -is | kʷu ʕacɬtís. | She tied our... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -ip | kʷu ʕacɬtíp. | You folks tied our... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -im | kʷu ʕacɬtím. | They tied our... |
Here is a paradigm of +xit with first person plural benefactee, strong stem (note the marking of third person subject):
| benefactee | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -xʷ | kʷu miƛ̓xtxʷ. | You painted it for us. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -s | miƛ̓xts. | She painted it for us. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -p | kʷu miƛ̓xtp. | You folks painted it for us. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -m | kʷu miƛ̓xtm. | They painted it for us. |
Here is a paradigm of +xít with first plural person benefactee, weak stem:
| benefactee | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -xʷ | kʷu ʕacxítxʷ. | You tied it for us. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -s | kʷu ʕacxíts. | She tied it for us. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -p | kʷu ʕacxítp. | You folks tied it for us. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -m | kʷu ʕacxítm. | They tied it for us. |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person plural possessor, strong stem (note the marking of first person plural subject):
| strong stem | possessor | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -ɬm | -n | miƛ̓ɬmn. | I painted you all's... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -ɬm | -s | miƛ̓ɬms. | She painted you all's... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -ɬm | -t | miƛ̓ɬmt. | We painted you all's... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -ɬm | -s-lx | miƛ̓ɬmslx. | They painted you all's... |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person plural possessor, weak stem (note the loss of stem +xt):
| weak stem | possessor | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac+ɬt | -ɬúlm | -n | ʕacɬúlmn. | I tied you all's... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -ɬúlm | -s | ʕacɬúlms. | He tied you all's... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -ɬúlm | -t | ʕacɬúlmt. | We tieed you all's... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -ɬúlm | -s-lx | ʕacɬúlmslx. | They tied you all's... |
Here is a paradigm of +xit with second person plural benefactee, strong stem (note the loss of stem +xt):
| strong stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| miƛ̓+xt | -ɬm | -n | miƛ̓ɬmn. | I painted it for you all. |
| miƛ̓+xt | -ɬm | -s | miƛ̓ɬms. | He painted it for you all. |
| miƛ̓+xt | -ɬm | -t | miƛ̓ɬmt. | We painted it for you all. |
| miƛ̓+xt | -ɬm | -s-lx | miƛ̓ɬmslx. | They painted it for you all. |
Here is a paradigm of +xit with second person plural benefactee, weak stem (note the loss of stem +xt):
| weak stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac+xít | -ɬúlm | -n | ʕacɬúlmn. | I tied it for you all. |
| ʕac+xít | -ɬúlm | -s | ʕacɬúlms. | He tied it for you all. |
| ʕac+xít | -ɬúlm | -t | ʕacɬúlmt. | We tied it for you all. |
| ʕac+xít | -ɬúlm | -s-lx | ʕacɬúlmslx. | They tied if for you all. |
Sample +tuɬt forms. These are always strong:
| weak stem | indirect object | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| cnmaʔkstúɬt | -Ø | -n | cnmaʔkstúɬtn | I showed her how to do it |
| cnmaʔkstúɬt | -Ø | -xʷ | cnmaʔkstúɬtxʷ | You showed her how to do it |
| cnmaʔkstúɬt | -Ø | -xʷ | cnmaʔkstúɬtxʷ | You showed her how to do it |
| cnmaʔkstúɬtxʷ | kʷu‿ | -xʷ | kʷu‿cnmaʔkstúɬtxʷ | You showed me how to do it |
| cnmaʔkstúɬtm | -Ø | -m | cnmaʔkstúɬtxʷm | We showed her how to do it |
Transitive stems with minimal derivation consist of a root plus a transitive suffix and object and subject inflection. Here is a list of transitive stems based on two-consonant roots and no other derivational material:
| stem | gloss | stem | gloss | stem | gloss | stem | gloss | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| cu+nt | tell s.o. | hoy+st | leave one alone | k̓ah+nt | raise s.t. | kʷul+st | send s.o. to | |||
| kʷil+nt | paint s.t. red | kʷɬ+ntuɬt | lend s.t. out | miy+st | be sure of | qsa+nt | scratch s.t. | |||
| qx̌+nt | split (wood) | qx̌+st | split (wood) | qx̌+ɬt | split (wood) | q̓iw+nt | put a hex on | |||
| q̓x̌+nt | make a trail | q̓aʔ+nt | stick s.t. in | qʷil+nt | cheat s.o. | qʷiy+nt | pile things | |||
| q̓ʷl+nt | roast s.t. | q̓ʷixʷ+nt | untie s.t. | sul+nt | freeze s.t. | sl̕+nt | twist s.t. | |||
| sl̕+xit | spin s.t. | sum+nt | smell s.t. | sup+nt | bother s.o. | sp̓+nt | club s.o. | |||
| sp̓+ɬt | club s.o. | siq̓+nt | split s.t. | siq̓+ɬt | split s.t. | siq̓+xt | split s.t. | |||
| sr+nt | peel s.t. | siw+nt | ask (for) | sw+tuɬt | ask about | sx+nt | air s.t. out | |||
| suxʷ+nt | recognize s.o. | suxʷ+st | recognize s.o. | suxʷ+ɬt | recognize s.o. | tap+nt | dirty s.t. | |||
| tap+ɬt | dirty s.t. | taq+nt | wave to | tax̌ʷ+nt | dangle s.t. | taʔ+nt | pound on | |||
| tɣ+nt | make water flow | til+nt | shred s.t. | tixʷ+nt | gather s.t. | tl+nt | break s.t. | |||
| tɬ+nt | straighten s.t. | tq+nt | stack s.t. | tq+nt | touch s.t. | tr+nt | unravel s.t. | |||
| tr̓q+nt | kick s.t. | tx+nt | comb one's hair | t̓aqá+nt | stack thngs | t̓aq̓+nt | stretch s.t. | |||
| t̓aqʷ+nt | lick s.t. | t̓aʕp+nt | shoot s.t. | t̓ic̓+nt | iron clothes | t̓ik̓l+nt | provide food | |||
| t̓il̕+nt | carve meat | t̓iɬ+nt | glue s.t. | t̓iqʷ+nt | blast s.t. | t̓ix+nt | take s.t. to shore | |||
| t̓k+nt | prop s.t. | t̓k̓ʷ+nt | put s.t. down | t̓ul+nt | tame s.t. | t̓up+nt | twist s.t. | t̓l+nt | tear s.t. | t̓ɬ+nt | soil s.t. | t̓q+nt | stack things | t̓qʷa+nt | slap s.t. |
| t̓qʷ+nt | patch s.t. | wah+nt | bark at | wic̓+nt | dig s.t. | wic̓+ɬt | dig for | |||
| wik+nt | see s.t. | wikʷ+nt | hide s.t. | wix+nt | build a house | wl+nt | burn s.t. | |||
| wr+nt | build a fire | wt+nt | scoop s.t. | xik̓+nt | miss a target | xiʔ+nt | look around for | |||
| xm+nt | spur a horse | xp+nt | chew s.t. | xr̓+nt | soak s.t. | xʷic̓+nt | give out s.t. | |||
| xʷikʷ+nt | tan hides | xʷk̓ʷ+nt | clean s.t. | xʷul+nt | drill a hole | x̌ʷiƛ̓+nt | whittle | |||
| xʷip+nt | spread s.t. | xʷp̓+nt | aim with rifle | xʷr̓a+nt | divert s.t. | xʷay̓+st | get after s.o. | |||
| xʷaʔ+nt | pick up s.t. | xʷy̓+nt | chew on s.t. | x̌ac+nt | bet on | x̌aq̓+nt | pay s.o. | |||
| x̌aʔ+nt | stop s.o. | x̌iq+nt | scrub s.t. | x̌p+nt | stack s.t. | x̌aq̓+nt | pay s.o. | |||
| x̌w̓+nt | dry s.t. | x̌ʷic̓+nt | cut s.t. | x̌ʷil+nt | throw s.t. away | x̌ʷiƛ̓+nt | break s.t. in pieces | |||
| x̌ʷq̓ʷ+nt | decrease s.t. | yc+nt | shake s.o. | yc+nt | wrinkle s.t. | yir+nt | push s.o. | |||
| yx̌a+nt | drag s.t. | ʕacá+nt | tie s.t. | ʕac̓+nt | look at | ʕam+nt | melt s.t. | |||
| ʕax̌ʷ+nt | mark s.t. with a string | ʔiɬ+nt | eat s.t. | ʔiq̓+nt | scrape s.t. | ʔaq̓ʷ+nt | scrape s.t. |