Topic

Introduction. The entries in this dictionary are: Roots; Particles; Affixes; Stems. The basic unit of Cv-Ok word formation is the root. Derivational prefixes and suffixes derive stems which can then be inflected, either by inflectional affixes or by inflectional particles.

Roots. The root is the main entry of the Roots & Stems lexicon (the second component of the dictionary). Each root is listed as a consonantal skeleton (without vowel). One of the reasons for this practice is that look-up is easier. Roots that exhibit vowel changes (ablaut) are so marked as belonging to a category, e.g. “i – a ablaut”.

Particles. Particles comprise several classes: interjections, directionals, evidentials, and others, including inflectional proclitic particles, discussed below.

Affixes divide into two classes: derivational and inflectional. Derivational affixes include lexical affixes. They derive a large variety of stems, which form the bulk of the dictionary. Because person-marking inflectional affixes participate in defining the grammatical class of the stems they attach to, I present them here along with the inflectional proclitic particles of the language.

Inflectional proclitic particles (represented with a following tie-under ( ‿ ), are part of the paradigms (or sets) that mark person inflection. These paradigms include not only particles, but also prefixes and suffixes. These classes are:

• intransitive subject
• double intransitives
• transitive subject
• transitive object (two sets)

Intransitive		Transitive
Intransitive	Double intransitive	subject	object
			object 1	object 2
kn‿ kʷ‿ Ø kʷu‿ p‿ Ø stem -lx	kʷu‿ i(n)-set form kʷ‿ i(n)-set form Ø stem i(n)-set form kʷu‿ i(n)-set form p‿ i(n)-set form Ø stem i(n)-set form -lx	-(í)n -(í)xʷ -(í)s -(í)m / -t -(í)p -(í)s stem -lx	kʷu‿ -s Ø kʷu‿ -ɬ(úl)m Ø	kʷu‿ -(ú)m Ø kʷu‿ -ɬ(úl)m Ø

See below for details about the two object sets.

Stems. The stems of the language are subentries of the root. They group into two main classes, intransitive and transitive. The intransitive class includes a subclass middle stems (see below).

Intransitive stems add person marking with the kn‿ set of forms given above, in the first column. The simplest intransitive stem is a 3rd person (marked by Ø) form. A few of these can occur without accompanying adjuncts (and form sentences), e.g. nis “S/he is gone;” k̓aw “It’s gone;” xʷuy “S/he left.” The norm is that an apposition or other adjunct(s) accompany an intransitive stem.

• kn‿ilmixʷm "I am (a/the) chief."
• kʷ‿ʔayx̌ʷt "You are tired."
• xʷuy "(S)he went."
• kʷu‿wy̓cin "We finished eating."
• p sysyus "You (all) are smart."
• ʔaɬʔíɬn "They ate."

From an English point of view, these forms are inflected predicate verbals, predicate nominals, and predicate adjectivals. Okanagan tells us that these are intransitive forms.

Double intransitives. What I now call double intransitives, are similar to the intransitives, but with two person markings, as exemplified here.

• kʷ‿in-lmixʷm "You are my chief."
• kʷu‿an-lʔíw "I am your father."
• tkɬmilxʷ-s "(She is) his woman."
• kʷ‿in-x̌mínk "I like you (lit. you are my "liking")."

Person marking.

• intransitive and middle stems take intransitive person inflection;
• transitive stems take transitive subject and object inflection;
• nominalized transitive and nominalized middle stems take double intransitive person inflection.

I have begun adding to the Cv-Ok Roots & Stems the label of the grammatical class of each transitive stem (stems ending in +nt, +st, +ɬt, +xit, +tuɬt); middle stem; nominalized transitive stem (stems with a transitivizer and a word-final +m) and nominalized middle stem (stems with double intransitive person marking, and obligatory final +m).

The following chart exemplifies this part of the system.

grammatical class	label	form	analyzed form	translation
Transitive	Tstem	captíkʷɬtsən	captíkʷ+ɬt-s-n	I’ll tell you the story of ...
Nominalized transitive	nTstem	ixíʔ kʷ ikscaptíkʷɬtəm	ixíʔ kʷ i-ks-captíkʷ+ɬt+m	This is the story I’m going to tell you.
Middle	Mstem	uɬ p captíkʷləm	uɬ p captíkʷl+m	And you told Indian legends.
Nominalized middle	nMstem	ixíʔ ikscaptíkʷləm	ixíʔ i-ks-captíkʷl+m	This is what I am going to tell him.

A few words to further explain the chart:

• captíkʷl is the intransitive stem (kn‿ person inflection)
• captíkʷlm is the middle stem (kn‿ person inflection, here with p‿ “you pl.”)
• captíkʷ+ɬt is the transitive stem (here with -s object person inflection, and -n subject person inflection “you I”)
• kʷ i-ks-captíkʷ+ɬt+m is the nominalized transitive form (stem + inflection: kʷ‿i- double intransitive person inflection, here with “you my”; ks- future; and the required final+m)
• i-ks-captíkʷ+m in the nominalized middle form (stem + inflection: i- double intransitive person marker ‘(s)he my...’; ks-future, and the required final+m).

This is how Cv-Ok turns transitive into intransitive forms and intransitive into transitive forms, thus marking the two principal grammatical classes of the language in a sort of syntactic dance.

***

Transitive subject. +nt stems. Transitive forms by definition include a subject and an object person marker. I start with a chart of a weak stem (stress falls on the suffix) because each form of the paradigm shows a root, a transitivizer (here +nt) and the suffix that marks person subject. +nt is the most common transitivizer found in the language.

+nt stem		weak +nt stem (suffix-stressed)
root	transitivizer	object marker	subject marker	full form	translation
cxʷ	+nt	Ø	-in	cxʷntin	I held/petted it.
cxʷ	+nt	Ø	-ixʷ	cxʷntixʷ	You held/petted it.
cxʷ	+nt	Ø	-is	cxʷntis	(S)he held/petted it.
cxʷ	+nt	Ø	-im	cxʷntim	We held/petted it.
cxʷ	+nt	Ø	-ip	cxʷntip	You all held/petted it.
cxʷ	+nt	Ø	-is-lx	cxʷntislx	They held/petted it.

Here is a chart of the forms based on the strong stem ciqnt "dig something" (with third person object). Again, the third person object marker is unmarked (Ø). These forms are stem-stressed, and the suffixes are vowelless. In addition, strong transitive stems do not display the transitivizer in the first and third person singular and in the third person plural.

+nt stem		strong +nt stem (stem-stressed)
root	transitivizer	object marker	subject marker	full form	translation
ciq	Ø	Ø	-n	ciqn	I dug it.
ciq	+nt	Ø	-xʷ	ciqntxʷ	You dug it.
ciq	Ø	Ø	-s	ciqs	(S)he dug it.
ciq	+nt	Ø	-m	ciqntm	We dug it.
ciq	+nt	Ø	-p	ciqntp	You all dug it.
ciq	Ø	Ø	-s-lx	ciqslx	They dug it.

Transitive subject. +st stems. The +st transitivizer occurs with some roots that do not take the+nt transitivizer (e.g. pul+st-xʷ "you beat him up." It also forms causative stems (e.g. xʷuy+st+n "I took it (there)." and, together with the prefix c-, customary stems (e.g. c-wik+st-xʷ "you used to see it (customarily)" -- vs wikntxʷ "you saw it." Here I chart the forms of the weak stem wy̓+st "to finish something."

+st stem		weak +st stem (suffix-stressed)
root	transitivizer	object marker	subject marker	full form	translation
wy̓	+st	Ø	-in	wy̓stin	I finished it.
wy̓	+st	Ø	-ixʷ	wy̓stixʷ	You finished it.
wy̓	+st	Ø	-is	wy̓stis	(S)he finished it.
wy̓	+st	Ø	-im	wy̓stim	We finished it.
wy̓	+st	Ø	-ip	wy̓stip	You all finished it.
wy̓	+st	Ø	-is-lx	wy̓stislx	They finished it.

The root √wy̓ happens to be a root that participates in the formation of both weak and strong stems, each with subtle semantic differences. More on this topic later. Here is the chart of stem-stressed forms:

+st stem		strong +st stem (stem-stressed)
root	transitivizer	object marker	subject marker	full form	translation
wiy̓	+st	Ø	-n	wiy̓stn	I quit it.
wiy̓	+st	Ø	-xʷ	wiy̓stxʷ	You quit it.
wiy̓	+st	Ø	-s	wiy̓sts	(S)he quit it.
wiy̓	+st	Ø	-m	wiy̓stm	We quit it.
wiy̓	+st	Ø	-p	wiy̓stp	You all quit it.
wiy̓	+st	Ø	-s-lx	wiy̓stslx	They quit it.

The variants of the transitive subject pronouns correlate with the valence of the transitive stems. Strong stems (with stress on the stem) take vowelless person markers; weak stems take the variants with the (stressed) vowel. The -t variant of the first person plural subject occurs after -m the second person singular object of second set of object markers.

Here I give some examples of forms with 1st person object (strong stems).

1st object	strong stem		subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	wik	+nt	-xʷ	kʷu wikntxʷ	You saw me
kʷu	wik	Ø	-s	kʷu wiks	(S)he saw me
kʷu	wik	Ø	-s-lx	kʷu wikslx	They saw me
kʷu	wik	+nt	-p	kʷu wikntp	You all saw me/us

Here I give some examples of forms with 1st person object (weak stems).

1st object	weak stem		subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu‿	ɬc	+nt	-ixʷ	kʷu‿ ɬcntixʷ	You petted me
kʷu	ɬc	+nt	-is	kʷu ɬcntis	(S)he petted me
kʷu	ɬc	+nt	-is-lx	kʷu ɬcntislx	They petted me
kʷu	ɬc	+nt	-ip	kʷu ɬcntip	You all petted me/us

Here I chart the way Cv-Ok differentiates between first person singular object (me) and first person plural object (us) with third person subject forms (strong stem):

1st object	strong stem		subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	wik	+nt	-s-lx	kʷu wikslx	They saw me
kʷu	wik	+nt	-m	kʷu wikntm	They saw us

Here I chart the way Cv-Ok differentiates between first person singular object (me) and first person plural object (us) with third person subject forms (weak stem):

1st object	weak stem		subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	ɬc	+nt	-is-lx	kʷu ɬcntislx	They petted me
kʷu	ɬc	+nt	-im	kʷu ɬcntim	They petted us

The -(i)m affix of these forms can be labeled "impersonal." More on the subject later.

Ditransitive stems: +ɬt, +x(í)t

The object markers of the +nt and +st stems mark a direct object (wik+nt-s-n "I saw you;" kʷu pul+st+xʷ "you beat me"). The object markers of the +ɬt and +x(i)t stems mark a sort of dative of interest or possession; and a benefactee, respectively. Often, however, +ɬt and +x(i)t stems are interchangeable, with subtle differences of meanings encoded in other grammatical ways. So the object markers are now a sort of indirect object markers.

The object markers of the +ɬt stems are the same as the object markers of the +nt stems. The object markers of the +x(í)t stems are the same as the object markers of the +st stems. A direct object is expressed by an intransitive nominal stem, or is implied.

Before I give tables with complete paradigms of each stem (strong, weak, +ɬt, +x(í)t), I will try to show with examples of both stems in context how the ditransitive stems function.

Examples of ditransitive stems with context

possessor/benefactee	stem		subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	ɬkim	+ɬt	Ø	kʷu ɬkím̓əɬt inlkapú.	Sew my coat!
kʷu	ɬkim	+ɬt	Ø	kʷu ɬkím̓əɬt ikɬkapú.	Sew my a coat!

Here we see how in-lkapú "my coat" and i-kɬ-kapú "mycoat to-be" interact with the transitive stem to encode two different propositions: in the first example I already have a coat; in the second I am asking you to make me a coat.

possessor/benefactee	stem		subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	siq̓	+ɬt	-s	kʷu síq̓əɬt islíp̓.	He split my wood.
kʷu	siq̓	+xt	-s	kʷu síq̓əxts t slip̓ way̓ápi.	way̓ápi split my wood (for me).

Here the difference in meaning is insignificant. In both constructions the wood is split for me / my benefit.

stem		possessor/benefactee	subject marker	full form	translation
ʕac	+ɬt	Ø	-ís	ʕacəɬtís iʔ tətw̓ít iʔ kəwáps.	She tied the boy’s horse.
ʕac	+xít	Ø	-s	ʕacxíts iʔ tətw̓ít t kɬkəwáps.	She tied a horse for the boy.

In this set of examples the different markings of the object (-kwap) match those of the ɬkim set, each with a different stem, first ʕac+ɬt-, then ʕac+xit-. kwaps "his horse," kɬkwaps "his horse-to-be."

Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with third person possessor, strong stem (stress on the root):

strong stem	possessor	subject marker	full form	translation
miƛ̓+ɬt	Ø	-n	miƛ̓tn.	I painted his X.
miƛ̓+ɬt	Ø	-xʷ	miƛ̓ɬtxʷ.	You painted her X.
miƛ̓+ɬt	Ø	-s	miƛ̓ɬts.	He painted her X.
miƛ̓+ɬt	Ø	-m	miƛ̓ɬtm.	We painted her X.
miƛ̓+ɬt	Ø	-p	miƛ̓ɬtp.	You folks painted her X.
miƛ̓+ɬt	Ø	-s-lx	miƛ̓ɬtslx.	They painted her X.

Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with third person possessor, weak stem (stress on the suffix):

weak stem	benefactee	subject marker	full form	translation
sq̓+ɬt	Ø	-in	sq̓ɬtin.	I split his wood.
sq̓+ɬt	Ø	-ixʷ	sq̓ɬtixʷ.	You split his wood.
sq̓+ɬt	Ø	-is	sq̓ɬtis.	He split his wood.
sq̓+ɬt	Ø	-im	sq̓ɬtim.	We split his wood.
sq̓+ɬt	Ø	-ip	sq̓ɬtip.	You folks split his wood.
sq̓+ɬt	Ø	-is-lx	sq̓ɬtislx.	They split his wood.

Here is a paradigm of +xt with third person benefactee, strong stem (stress on the root):

strong stem	benefactee	subject marker	full form	translation
k̓ʷul̕+xt	Ø	-n	k̓ʷul̕xtn.	I fixed it for him.
k̓ʷul̕+xt	Ø	-xʷ	k̓ʷul̕xtxʷ.	You tied it for her.
k̓ʷul̕+xt	Ø	-s	k̓ʷul̕xts.	He fixed it for her.
k̓ʷul̕+xt	Ø	-m	k̓ʷul̕xtm.	We fixed it for her.
k̓ʷul̕+xt	Ø	-p	k̓ʷul̕xtp.	You folks fixed it for her.
k̓ʷul̕+xt	Ø	-s-lx	k̓ʷul̕xtslx.	They fixed it for her.

Here is a paradigm of +xít with third person benefactee, weak stem. Note that in this paradigm the stress is on +xít, and not on the subject marker:

weak stem	benefactee	subject marker	full form	translation
ʕac+xit	Ø	-n	ʕacxítn.	I tied it for her.
ʕac+xit	Ø	-xʷ	ʕacxítxʷ.	You tied it for her.
ʕac+xit	Ø	-s	ʕacxíts.	He tied it for her.
ʕac+xit	Ø	-m	ʕacxítm.	We tied it for her.
ʕac+xit	Ø	-p	ʕacxítp.	You folks tied it for her.
ʕac+xit	Ø	-s-lx	ʕacxítslx.	They tied it for her.

Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person possessor, strong stem. Note the coalescnce of -s -s into -s in the second person possessor and third person subject:

strong stem	possessor	subject marker	full form	translation
miƛ̓+ɬt	-s	-n	miƛ̓tsn.	I painted your...
miƛ̓+ɬt	-s	-s	miƛ̓ɬts.	She painted your...
miƛ̓+ɬt	-s	-t	miƛ̓ɬtst.	We painted your...
miƛ̓+ɬt	-s	-s-lx	miƛ̓ɬtslx.	They painted your...

Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person possessor, weak stem. Note the coalescnce of -s -s into -s in the second person possessor and third person subject:

weak stem	possessor	subject marker	full form	translation
ʕac+ɬt	-s	-in	ʕacɬtsín.	I tied your...
ʕac+ɬt	-s	-is	ʕacɬtsís.	She tied it your...
ʕac+ɬt	-s	-im	ʕacɬtsím.	We tied your...
ʕac+ɬt	-s	-is-lx	ʕacɬtsíslx.	They tied your...

Here is a paradigm of +xít with second person benefactee, strong stem:

strong stem	benefactee	subject marker	full form	translation
k̓ʷul̓+xt	-m	-n	kʷul̓xtmn.	I fixed it for you.
k̓ʷul̓+xt	-m	-s	kʷul̓xtms.	He fixed it for you.
k̓ʷul̓+xt	-m	-t	k̓ʷul̓xtmt.	We fixed it for you.
k̓ʷul̓+xt	-m	-s-lx	k̓ʷul̓xtmslx.	They fixed it for you.

Here is a paradigm of +xít with second person benefactee, weak stem:

weak stem	benefactee	subject marker	full form	translation
ʕac+xit	-m	-n	ʕacxítmn.	I tied it for you.
ʕac+xit	-m	-s	ʕacxítms.	She tied it for you.
ʕac+xit	-m	-t	ʕacxítmt.	We tied it for you.
ʕac+xit	-m	-s-lx	ʕacxítmslx.	They tied it for you.

Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person possessor, strong stem:

possessor	strong stem	subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	miƛ̓+ɬt	-xʷ	kʷu miƛ̓txʷ.	You painted my...
kʷu	miƛ̓+ɬt	-s	miƛ̓ɬts.	She painted my...
kʷu	miƛ̓+ɬt	-p	kʷu miƛ̓ɬtp.	You folks painted my...
kʷu	miƛ̓+ɬt	-s-lx	kʷu miƛ̓ɬslx.	They painted my...

Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person possessor, weak stem.

possessor	weak stem	subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	ʕac+ɬt	-xʷ	kʷu ʕacɬtíxʷ.	You tied my...
kʷu	ʕac+ɬt	-is	kʷu ʕacɬtís.	She tied my...
kʷu	ʕac+ɬt	-ip	kʷu ʕacɬtíp.	You folks tied my...
kʷu	ʕac+ɬt	-is-lx	kʷu ʕacɬtíslx.	They tied my...

Here is a paradigm of +xit with first person benefactee, strong stem.

benefactee	strong stem	subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	miƛ̓+xt	-xʷ	kʷu miƛ̓xtxʷ.	You painted it for me.
kʷu	miƛ̓+xt	-s	miƛ̓xts.	She painted it for me.
kʷu	miƛ̓+xt	-p	kʷu miƛ̓xtp.	You folks painted it for me.
kʷu	miƛ̓+xt	-s-lx	kʷu miƛ̓xtslx.	They painted it for me.

Here is a paradigm of +xít with first person benefactee, weak stem.

benefactee	weak stem	subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	ʕac+xít	-xʷ	kʷu ʕacxítxʷ.	You tied it for me.
kʷu	ʕac+xít	-s	kʷu ʕacxíts.	She tied it for me.
kʷu	ʕac+xít	-p	kʷu ʕacxítp.	You folks tied it for me.
kʷu	ʕac+xít	-s-lx	kʷu ʕacxítslx.	They tied it for me.

Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person plural possessor, strong stem (note the marking of third person subject):

possessor	strong stem	subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	miƛ̓+ɬt	-xʷ	kʷu miƛ̓txʷ.	You painted our...
kʷu	miƛ̓+ɬt	-s	miƛ̓ɬts.	She painted our...
kʷu	miƛ̓+ɬt	-p	kʷu miƛ̓ɬtp.	You folks painted our...
kʷu	miƛ̓+ɬt	-m	kʷu miƛ̓ɬtm.	They painted our...

Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person plural possessor, weak stem (note the marking of third person subject):

possessor	weak stem	subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	ʕac+ɬt	-xʷ	kʷu ʕacɬtíxʷ.	You tied our...
kʷu	ʕac+ɬt	-is	kʷu ʕacɬtís.	She tied our...
kʷu	ʕac+ɬt	-ip	kʷu ʕacɬtíp.	You folks tied our...
kʷu	ʕac+ɬt	-im	kʷu ʕacɬtím.	They tied our...

Here is a paradigm of +xit with first person plural benefactee, strong stem (note the marking of third person subject):

benefactee	strong stem	subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	miƛ̓+xt	-xʷ	kʷu miƛ̓xtxʷ.	You painted it for us.
kʷu	miƛ̓+xt	-s	miƛ̓xts.	She painted it for us.
kʷu	miƛ̓+xt	-p	kʷu miƛ̓xtp.	You folks painted it for us.
kʷu	miƛ̓+xt	-m	kʷu miƛ̓xtm.	They painted it for us.

Here is a paradigm of +xít with first plural person benefactee, weak stem:

benefactee	weak stem	subject marker	full form	translation
kʷu	ʕac+xít	-xʷ	kʷu ʕacxítxʷ.	You tied it for us.
kʷu	ʕac+xít	-s	kʷu ʕacxíts.	She tied it for us.
kʷu	ʕac+xít	-p	kʷu ʕacxítp.	You folks tied it for us.
kʷu	ʕac+xít	-m	kʷu ʕacxítm.	They tied it for us.

Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person plural possessor, strong stem (note the marking of first person plural subject):

strong stem	possessor	subject marker	full form	translation
miƛ̓+ɬt	-ɬm	-n	miƛ̓ɬmn.	I painted you all's...
miƛ̓+ɬt	-ɬm	-s	miƛ̓ɬms.	She painted you all's...
miƛ̓+ɬt	-ɬm	-t	miƛ̓ɬmt.	We painted you all's...
miƛ̓+ɬt	-ɬm	-s-lx	miƛ̓ɬmslx.	They painted you all's...

Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person plural possessor, weak stem (note the loss of stem +xt):

weak stem	possessor	subject marker	full form	translation
ʕac+ɬt	-ɬúlm	-n	ʕacɬúlmn.	I tied you all's...
ʕac+ɬt	-ɬúlm	-s	ʕacɬúlms.	He tied you all's...
ʕac+ɬt	-ɬúlm	-t	ʕacɬúlmt.	We tieed you all's...
ʕac+ɬt	-ɬúlm	-s-lx	ʕacɬúlmslx.	They tied you all's...

Here is a paradigm of +xit with second person plural benefactee, strong stem (note the loss of stem +xt):

strong stem	benefactee	subject marker	full form	translation
miƛ̓+xt	-ɬm	-n	miƛ̓ɬmn.	I painted it for you all.
miƛ̓+xt	-ɬm	-s	miƛ̓ɬms.	He painted it for you all.
miƛ̓+xt	-ɬm	-t	miƛ̓ɬmt.	We painted it for you all.
miƛ̓+xt	-ɬm	-s-lx	miƛ̓ɬmslx.	They painted it for you all.

Here is a paradigm of +xit with second person plural benefactee, weak stem (note the loss of stem +xt):

weak stem	benefactee	subject marker	full form	translation
ʕac+xít	-ɬúlm	-n	ʕacɬúlmn.	I tied it for you all.
ʕac+xít	-ɬúlm	-s	ʕacɬúlms.	He tied it for you all.
ʕac+xít	-ɬúlm	-t	ʕacɬúlmt.	We tied it for you all.
ʕac+xít	-ɬúlm	-s-lx	ʕacɬúlmslx.	They tied if for you all.

Here is a paradigm of +tuɬt forms: (forthcoming)

Transitive stems with minimal derivation consist of a root plus a transitive suffix (object and subject inflection complete the forms). Here is a list of two-consonant roots, a transitivizer, and no other derivational material:

stem	translation	stem	translation	stem	translation
cu+nt	tell s.o.	hoy+st	leave one alone	k̓ah+nt	raise s.t.
kʷul+st	send s.o. to	kʷil+nt	paint s.t. red	kʷɬ+ntuɬt	lend s.t. out
miy+st	be sure of	qsa+nt	scratch s.t.	qx̌+nt	split (wood)
qx̌+ɬt	split wood	q̓iw+nt	put a hex on	q̓x̌+nt	make a trail
q̓aʔ+nt	stick s.t. in	qʷil+nt	cheat s.o.	qʷiy+nt	pile things
q̓ʷl+nt	roast s.t.	q̓ʷixʷ+nt	untie s.t.	sul+nt	freeze s.t.
sl̕+nt	twist s.t.	sl̕+xit	to spin s.t.	sum+nt	smell s.t.
sup+nt	bother s.o.	sp̓+nt	club s.o.	sp̓+ɬt	club s.o.
siq̓+nt	split s.t.	siq̓+ɬt	split s.t.	siq̓+xt	split s.t.
sq̓a+nt	split wood	sq̓+ɬt	split wood	sq̓+xit	split wood
sr+nt	peel s.t.	siw+nt	ask (for)	sw+tuɬt	ask about
sx+nt	air s.t. out	suxʷ+nt	recognize s.o.	suxʷ+st	recognize s.o.
suxʷ+ɬt	recognize s.o.	tɣ+nt	make water flow	til+nt	shred s.t.
tl+nt	break s.t.	tɬ+nt	straighten s.t.	tap+nt	dirty s.t.
tap+ɬt	dirty s.t.	tq+nt	stack s.t.	taq+nt	wave to
tq+nt	touch s.t.	tr+nt	unravel s.t.	tx+nt	comb one's hair
tixʷ+nt	gather s.t.	tax̌ʷ+nt	dangle s.t.	taʔ+nt	pound on
t̓ic̓+nt	iron clothes	t̓k+nt	prop s.t.	t̓k̓ʷ+nt	put s.t. down
t̓ul+nt	tame s.t.	t̓l+nt	tear s.t.	t̓il̕+nt	carve meat
t̓iɬ+nt	glue s.t.	t̓ɬ+nt	soil s.t.	t̓aqá+nt	stack thngs
t̓aq̓+nt	stretch s.t.	t̓iqʷ+nt	blast s.t.	t̓aqʷ+nt	lick s.t.
t̓qʷa+nt	slap s.t.	t̓qʷ+nt	patch s.t.	t̓ix+nt	take s.t. to shore (from the water)
wic̓+nt	dig s.t.	wic̓+ɬt	dig for	wah+nt	wah+nt
wik+nt	see s.t.	wikʷ+nt	hide s.t.	wr+nt	build a fire
wt+nt	scoop s.t.	wix+nt	build a house	xik̓+nt	miss a target
xm+nt	spur a horse	xp+nt	chew s.t.	xr̓+nt	soak s.t.
xiʔ+nt	look around for	xʷic̓+nt	give out s.t.	xʷikʷ+nt	tan hides
xʷk̓ʷ+nt	clean s.t.	xʷul+nt	drill a hole	x̌ʷiƛ̓+nt	whittle
xʷip+nt	spread s.t.	xʷp̓+nt	aim with rifle	xʷr̓a+nt	divert s.t.
xʷay̓+st	get after s.o.	xʷy̓+nt	chew on s.t.	x̌aq̓+nt	pay s.o.
x̌ʷil+nt	throw s.t. away	x̌ʷiƛ̓+nt	break s.t. in pieces	x̌ʷq̓ʷ+nt	decrease s.t.
yc+nt	shake s.o.	yir+nt	push s.o.	yx̌a+nt	drag s.t.
ʕacá+nt	tie s.t.	ʕac̓+nt	look at	ʕam+nt	melt s.t.
ʕax̌ʷ+nt	mark s.t. with a string	ʔiɬ+nt	eat s.t.	ʔiq̓+nt	scrape s.t.
ʔaq̓ʷ+nt	scrape s.t.

Organization of stems. While stems can be simple, and consist only of a root and person inflection, most stems include additional derivational material. I begin my description of longer stems with stems derived with the four prefixes listed here (stems with other derivational materials are described later):

• stems with the prefix k+/t+
• stems with the prefix n+
• stems with the prefix k̓ɬ+
• stems with the prefix kɬ+
• compound stems (stems which include two or more roots)
• phrasal entries

Stems with the directional prefixes c+ ‘this way,” ɬ+ ‘back; again,’ and the combination ɬc+ ‘back here’ are integrated in the list as daughters of the subentries with one of the four prefixes listed above, as are stems with lexical prefixes. The nominalizing prefixes s+ and sc+ are treated in the same way. Other, less common prefixes are discussed later. Here is an example of a root entry with its subentries (I discuss the order of suffixes later):

stem		analyzed stem	gloss
Basic	Derived
kic	kicnt	kic+nt	to reach s.o.; to visit s.o.
	ckicnt	c+kic+nt	to bring something.
	ɬkicnt	ɬ+kic+nt	to reach s.o. again.
	ɬckic+nt	ɬ+c+kic+nt	to reach s.o. back here.
	kicc	kic•c	to be visited; to receive visitors.
	skicc	s+kic•c	a visitor; a newcomer.
	kctwixʷ	kc+twixʷ	to reach one another; to meet.
	kicx	kic+x	to arrive some place.
	ckicx	c+kic+x	one arrives here (sg. or collective subject); bring something.
	ɬkicx	ɬ+kic+x	to arrive back; to arrive again.
	ɬckicx	ɬ+c+kic+x	to arrive here again.
	sckicx	sc+kic+x	one's arrival; one's having come.
	kicxst	kic+x+st	to take s.t. or s.o. some place.
	ckicxst	c+kic+x+st	to bring s.t. or s.o. here.
	ckicxst	ɬ+kic+x+st	to take s.t. back.
	haɬckíc	haɬc+kic	a group comes.
	kckxikn	kc+xikn	to arrive with s.o.; to be joined by s.o.
kic	tkicnt	t+kic+nt	to run across s.o.; to meet s.o.
	ɬtkicnt	ɬ+t+kic+nt	to meet with s.t. or s.o. again.
	tkicc	t+kic•c	to be met by s.o.
	tkckcnwixʷ	t+kc•kcnwixʷ	to meet; to catch up with one another.
kic	nkckn̓wixʷ	n+kckn̓+wixʷ	to overtake one another, to meet.
	nkcknaɬq	n+kcknaɬq	to catch up with s.o. or s.t.
	nkcxus	n+kc+xus	to reach a certain time.
	ɬnkcxus	ɬ+n+kc+xus	to complete a cycle again.
	nkcxiw̓snt	n+kc+xiw̓s+nt	to fall in with s.o.; to invade; to bust in on s.o.; to join a crowd; to (reach s.o. and) mingle.
	ɬnkcxiw̓snt	ɬ+n+kc+xiw̓s+nt	to be in the midst of s.t. again.
kic	k̓ɬkicnt	k̓ɬ+kic+nt	to manage to reach s.t. or s.o.; to get to s.t. or s.o.
	k̓ɬkicx	k̓ɬ+kic+x	to manage to arrive there.
	ɬk̓ɬkicx	ɬ+k̓ɬ+kic+x	to manage to arrive back.
	k̓ɬkicx	k̓ɬ+c+kic+x	to manage to arrive here.
	k̓ɬkicxst	k̓ɬ+c+kic+x+st	to manage to take s.o. or s.t. somewhere.
kic	cʔipkícx	c+ʔipkic+x	to arrive some place on the way to ...
	tawskícc	taw+s+kíc•c	to have company; to be visited by s.o.
	ʔawstkíc	ʔaw+s+t+kíc	to go meet s.o.