Introduction. The entries in this dictionary are: Stems; Particles; Affixes. A root is the element on which stems are formed, along with derivational affixes.
Roots. Roots are listed (in an appendix) as consonantal skeleta (without vowel). One of the reasons for this practice is that look-up is easier. Roots that exhibit vowel changes (ablaut) are so marked as belonging to a category, e.g. “i – a ablaut”.
Stems can undergo derivation and then be inflected, either by inflectional affixes or by inflectional particles.
Particles. Particles comprise several classes: interjections, directionals, evidentials, and others, including inflectional proclitic particles, discussed below.
Affixes divide into two classes: derivational and inflectional. Derivational affixes include lexical affixes. They derive a large variety of stems, which form the bulk of the dictionary. Because person-marking inflectional affixes participate in defining the grammatical class of the stems they attach to, I present them here along with the inflectional proclitic particles of the language.
Inflectional proclitic particles (represented with a following tie-under ( ‿ ), are part of the paradigms (or sets) that mark person inflection. These paradigms include not only particles, but also prefixes and suffixes. These classes are:
| Intransitive | Transitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intransitive | Double intransitive | subject | object | |
| object 1 | object 2 | |||
|
|
|
|
|
See below for details about the two object sets.
Stems group into two main classes, intransitive and transitive. The intransitive class includes a subclass middle stems (see below).
Intransitive stems add person marking with the kn‿ set of forms given above, in the first column. The simplest intransitive stem is a 3rd person (marked by Ø) form. A few of these can occur without accompanying adjuncts (and form sentences), e.g. nis “S/he is gone;” k̓aw “It’s gone;” xʷuy “S/he left.” The norm is that an apposition or other adjunct(s) accompany an intransitive stem.
From an English point of view, these forms are inflected predicate verbals, predicate nominals, and predicate adjectivals. Okanagan tells us that these are intransitive forms.
Double intransitives. What I now call double intransitives, are similar to the intransitives, but with two person markings, as exemplified here.
Person marking. While intransitive and middle stems take intransitive person inflection, transitive stems take transitive subject and object inflection, and nominalized transitive and nominalized middle stems take double intransitive person inflection (see below).
Transitive stems. I label transitive stem by their stems endings, i.e. +nt, +st, +ɬt, +xit, +tuɬt. These stems take transitive inflection. I label nominalized transitive stem (stems with a transitivizer and a word-final +m) analogouly, i.e. +nt+m, +st+m, +ɬt+m, +xit+m, +tuɬt+m. I label middle and nominalized middle stems with +m. These last three stems take double intransitive person marking (and obligatory final +m) as charted here.
| grammatical class | label | form | analyzed form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Transitive | Tstem | captíkʷɬtsən | captíkʷ+ɬt-s-n | I’ll tell you the story of ... |
| Nominalized transitive | nTstem | ixíʔ kʷ ikscaptíkʷɬtəm | ixíʔ kʷ i-ks-captíkʷ+ɬt+m | This is the story I’m going to tell you. |
| Middle | Mstem | uɬ p captíkʷləm | uɬ p captíkʷl+m | And you told Indian legends. |
| Nominalized middle | nMstem | ixíʔ ikscaptíkʷləm | ixíʔ i-ks-captíkʷl+m | This is what I am going to tell him. |
A few words to further explain the chart:
This is how Cv-Ok turns transitive into intransitive forms and intransitive into transitive forms, thus marking the two principal grammatical classes of the language in a sort of syntactic dance.
Further, the language allows for intransitive and middle forms to be transitivized, and these transitive forms, in turn, to be nominalized.
This chart shows examples of intransitive stems and their derived middle and transitive stem, including borrowings.
| gramm class | label | form | gloss | derived form | gramm class | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intransitive | Istem | qʷacqn | hat | qʷacqn+m | middle | wear a hat |
| Intransitive | Istem | laprít | bridle | laprít+m | middle | put the bridle on |
| Intransitive | Istem | s+p̓iƛ̓+m | bitterrot | p̓iƛ̓+nt-xʷ | transitive | you dug bitterroot |
| Intransitive | Istem | s+p̓iƛ̓+m | bitterrot | p̓iƛ̓+m | middle | he cleaned bitterroot |
| Intransitive | Istem | kʷil | red | kʷil+nt+xʷ | transitive | you painted it red |
Transitive subject. +nt stems. Transitive forms by definition include a subject and an object person marker. I start with a chart of a weak stem (stress falls on the suffix) because each form of the paradigm shows a root, a transitivizer (here +nt) and the suffix that marks person subject. +nt is the most common transitivizer found in the language.
| +nt stem | weak +nt stem (suffix-stressed) | root | transitivizer | object marker | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| cxʷ | +nt | Ø | -in | cxʷntin | I held/petted it. |
| cxʷ | +nt | Ø | -ixʷ | cxʷntixʷ | You held/petted it. |
| cxʷ | +nt | Ø | -is | cxʷntis | (S)he held/petted it. |
| cxʷ | +nt | Ø | -im | cxʷntim | We held/petted it. |
| cxʷ | +nt | Ø | -ip | cxʷntip | You all held/petted it. |
| cxʷ | +nt | Ø | -is-lx | cxʷntislx | They held/petted it. |
Here is a chart of the forms based on the strong stem ciqnt "dig something" (with third person object). Again, the third person object marker is unmarked (Ø). These forms are stem-stressed, and the suffixes are vowelless. In addition, strong transitive stems do not display the transitivizer in the first and third person singular and in the third person plural.
| +nt stem | strong +nt stem (stem-stressed) | root | transitivizer | object marker | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ciq | Ø | Ø | -n | ciqn | I dug it. |
| ciq | +nt | Ø | -xʷ | ciqntxʷ | You dug it. |
| ciq | Ø | Ø | -s | ciqs | (S)he dug it. |
| ciq | +nt | Ø | -m | ciqntm | We dug it. |
| ciq | +nt | Ø | -p | ciqntp | You all dug it. |
| ciq | Ø | Ø | -s-lx | ciqslx | They dug it. |
Transitive subject. +st stems. The +st transitivizer occurs with some roots that do not take the+nt transitivizer (e.g. pul+st-xʷ "you beat him up." It also forms causative stems (e.g. xʷuy+st+n "I took it (there)." and, together with the prefix c-, customary stems (e.g. c-wik+st-xʷ "you used to see it (customarily)" -- vs wikntxʷ "you saw it." Here I chart the forms of the weak stem wy̓+st "to finish something."
| +st stem | weak +st stem (suffix-stressed) | root | transitivizer | object marker | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -in | wy̓stin | I finished it. |
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -ixʷ | wy̓stixʷ | You finished it. |
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -is | wy̓stis | (S)he finished it. |
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -im | wy̓stim | We finished it. |
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -ip | wy̓stip | You all finished it. |
| wy̓ | +st | Ø | -is-lx | wy̓stislx | They finished it. |
The root √wy̓ happens to be a root that participates in the formation of both weak and strong stems, each with subtle semantic differences. More on this topic later. Here is the chart of stem-stressed forms:
| +st stem | strong +st stem (stem-stressed) | root | transitivizer | object marker | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -n | wiy̓stn | I quit it. |
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -xʷ | wiy̓stxʷ | You quit it. |
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -s | wiy̓sts | (S)he quit it. |
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -m | wiy̓stm | We quit it. |
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -p | wiy̓stp | You all quit it. |
| wiy̓ | +st | Ø | -s-lx | wiy̓stslx | They quit it. |
The variants of the transitive subject pronouns correlate with the valence of the transitive stems. Strong stems (with stress on the stem) take vowelless person markers; weak stems take the variants with the (stressed) vowel. The -t variant of the first person plural subject occurs after -m the second person singular object of second set of object markers.
Here I give some examples of forms with 1st person object (strong stems).
| 1st object | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | wik | +nt | -xʷ | kʷu wikntxʷ | You saw me |
| kʷu | wik | Ø | -s | kʷu wiks | (S)he saw me |
| kʷu | wik | Ø | -s-lx | kʷu wikslx | They saw me |
| kʷu | wik | +nt | -p | kʷu wikntp | You all saw me/us |
Here I give some examples of forms with 1st person object (weak stems).
| 1st object | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu‿ | ɬc | +nt | -ixʷ | kʷu‿ ɬcntixʷ | You petted me |
| kʷu | ɬc | +nt | -is | kʷu ɬcntis | (S)he petted me |
| kʷu | ɬc | +nt | -is-lx | kʷu ɬcntislx | They petted me |
| kʷu | ɬc | +nt | -ip | kʷu ɬcntip | You all petted me/us |
Here I chart the way Cv-Ok differentiates between first person singular object (me) and first person plural object (us) with third person subject forms (strong stem):
| 1st object | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | wik | +nt | -s-lx | kʷu wikslx | They saw me |
| kʷu | wik | +nt | -m | kʷu wikntm | They saw us |
Here I chart the way Cv-Ok differentiates between first person singular object (me) and first person plural object (us) with third person subject forms (weak stem):
| 1st object | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ɬc | +nt | -is-lx | kʷu ɬcntislx | They petted me |
| kʷu | ɬc | +nt | -im | kʷu ɬcntim | They petted us |
The -(i)m affix of these forms can be labeled "impersonal." More on the subject later.
Ditransitive stems: +ɬt, +x(í)t
The object markers of the +nt and +st stems mark a direct object (wik+nt-s-n "I saw you;" kʷu pul+st+xʷ "you beat me"). The object markers of the +ɬt and +x(i)t stems mark a sort of dative of interest or possession; and a benefactee, respectively. Often, however, +ɬt and +x(i)t stems are interchangeable, with subtle differences of meanings encoded in other grammatical ways. So the object markers are now a sort of indirect object markers.
The object markers of the +ɬt stems are the same as the object markers of the +nt stems. The object markers of the +x(í)t stems are the same as the object markers of the +st stems. A direct object is expressed by an intransitive nominal stem, or is implied.
Before I give tables with complete paradigms of each stem (strong, weak, +ɬt, +x(í)t), I will try to show with examples of both stems in context how the ditransitive stems function.
Examples of +ɬt and +x(i)t stems with context
| possessor/benefactee | stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ɬkim | +ɬt | Ø | kʷu ɬkím̓əɬt inlkapú. | Sew my coat! |
| kʷu | ɬkim | +ɬt | Ø | kʷu ɬkím̓əɬt ikɬkapú. | Sew my a coat! |
Here we see how in-lkapú "my coat" and i-kɬ-kapú "mycoat to-be" interact with the transitive stem to encode two different propositions: in the first example I already have a coat; in the second I am asking you to make me a coat.
| possessor/benefactee | stem | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | siq̓ | +ɬt | -s | kʷu síq̓əɬt islíp̓. | He split my wood. |
| kʷu | siq̓ | +xt | -s | kʷu síq̓əxts t slip̓ way̓ápi. | way̓ápi split my wood (for me). |
Here the difference in meaning is insignificant. In both constructions the wood is split for me / my benefit.
| stem | possessor/benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac | +ɬt | Ø | -ís | ʕacəɬtís iʔ tətw̓ít iʔ kəwáps. | She tied the boy’s horse. |
| ʕac | +xít | Ø | -s | ʕacxíts iʔ tətw̓ít t kɬkəwáps. | She tied a horse for the boy. |
In this set of examples the different markings of the object (-kwap) match those of the ɬkim set, each with a different stem, first ʕac+ɬt-, then ʕac+xit-. kwaps "his horse," kɬkwaps "his horse-to-be."
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with third person possessor, strong stem (stress on the root):
| strong stem | possessor | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -n | miƛ̓tn. | I painted his X. |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -xʷ | miƛ̓ɬtxʷ. | You painted her X. |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -s | miƛ̓ɬts. | He painted her X. |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -m | miƛ̓ɬtm. | We painted her X. |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -p | miƛ̓ɬtp. | You folks painted her X. |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | Ø | -s-lx | miƛ̓ɬtslx. | They painted her X. |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with third person possessor, weak stem (stress on the suffix):
| weak stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -in | sq̓ɬtin. | I split his wood. |
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -ixʷ | sq̓ɬtixʷ. | You split his wood. |
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -is | sq̓ɬtis. | He split his wood. |
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -im | sq̓ɬtim. | We split his wood. |
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -ip | sq̓ɬtip. | You folks split his wood. |
| sq̓+ɬt | Ø | -is-lx | sq̓ɬtislx. | They split his wood. |
Here is a paradigm of +xt with third person benefactee, strong stem (stress on the root):
| strong stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -n | k̓ʷul̕xtn. | I fixed it for him. |
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -xʷ | k̓ʷul̕xtxʷ. | You tied it for her. |
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -s | k̓ʷul̕xts. | He fixed it for her. |
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -m | k̓ʷul̕xtm. | We fixed it for her. |
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -p | k̓ʷul̕xtp. | You folks fixed it for her. |
| k̓ʷul̕+xt | Ø | -s-lx | k̓ʷul̕xtslx. | They fixed it for her. |
Here is a paradigm of +xít with third person benefactee, weak stem. Note that in this paradigm the stress is on +xít, and not on the subject marker:
| weak stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -n | ʕacxítn. | I tied it for her. |
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -xʷ | ʕacxítxʷ. | You tied it for her. |
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -s | ʕacxíts. | He tied it for her. |
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -m | ʕacxítm. | We tied it for her. |
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -p | ʕacxítp. | You folks tied it for her. |
| ʕac+xit | Ø | -s-lx | ʕacxítslx. | They tied it for her. |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person possessor, strong stem. Note the coalescnce of -s -s into -s in the second person possessor and third person subject:
| strong stem | possessor | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | -n | miƛ̓tsn. | I painted your... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | -s | miƛ̓ɬts. | She painted your... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | -t | miƛ̓ɬtst. | We painted your... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | -s-lx | miƛ̓ɬtslx. | They painted your... |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person possessor, weak stem. Note the coalescnce of -s -s into -s in the second person possessor and third person subject:
| weak stem | possessor | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac+ɬt | -s | -in | ʕacɬtsín. | I tied your... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -s | -is | ʕacɬtsís. | She tied it your... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -s | -im | ʕacɬtsím. | We tied your... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -s | -is-lx | ʕacɬtsíslx. | They tied your... |
Here is a paradigm of +xít with second person benefactee, strong stem:
| strong stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| k̓ʷul̓+xt | -m | -n | kʷul̓xtmn. | I fixed it for you. |
| k̓ʷul̓+xt | -m | -s | kʷul̓xtms. | He fixed it for you. |
| k̓ʷul̓+xt | -m | -t | k̓ʷul̓xtmt. | We fixed it for you. |
| k̓ʷul̓+xt | -m | -s-lx | k̓ʷul̓xtmslx. | They fixed it for you. |
Here is a paradigm of +xít with second person benefactee, weak stem:
| weak stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac+xit | -m | -n | ʕacxítmn. | I tied it for you. |
| ʕac+xit | -m | -s | ʕacxítms. | She tied it for you. |
| ʕac+xit | -m | -t | ʕacxítmt. | We tied it for you. |
| ʕac+xit | -m | -s-lx | ʕacxítmslx. | They tied it for you. |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person possessor, strong stem:
| possessor | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -xʷ | kʷu miƛ̓txʷ. | You painted my... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | miƛ̓ɬts. | She painted my... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -p | kʷu miƛ̓ɬtp. | You folks painted my... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -s-lx | kʷu miƛ̓ɬslx. | They painted my... |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person possessor, weak stem.
| possessor | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -xʷ | kʷu ʕacɬtíxʷ. | You tied my... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -is | kʷu ʕacɬtís. | She tied my... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -ip | kʷu ʕacɬtíp. | You folks tied my... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -is-lx | kʷu ʕacɬtíslx. | They tied my... |
Here is a paradigm of +xit with first person benefactee, strong stem.
| benefactee | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -xʷ | kʷu miƛ̓xtxʷ. | You painted it for me. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -s | miƛ̓xts. | She painted it for me. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -p | kʷu miƛ̓xtp. | You folks painted it for me. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -s-lx | kʷu miƛ̓xtslx. | They painted it for me. |
Here is a paradigm of +xít with first person benefactee, weak stem.
| benefactee | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -xʷ | kʷu ʕacxítxʷ. | You tied it for me. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -s | kʷu ʕacxíts. | She tied it for me. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -p | kʷu ʕacxítp. | You folks tied it for me. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -s-lx | kʷu ʕacxítslx. | They tied it for me. |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person plural possessor, strong stem (note the marking of third person subject):
| possessor | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -xʷ | kʷu miƛ̓txʷ. | You painted our... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -s | miƛ̓ɬts. | She painted our... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -p | kʷu miƛ̓ɬtp. | You folks painted our... |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+ɬt | -m | kʷu miƛ̓ɬtm. | They painted our... |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with first person plural possessor, weak stem (note the marking of third person subject):
| possessor | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -xʷ | kʷu ʕacɬtíxʷ. | You tied our... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -is | kʷu ʕacɬtís. | She tied our... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -ip | kʷu ʕacɬtíp. | You folks tied our... |
| kʷu | ʕac+ɬt | -im | kʷu ʕacɬtím. | They tied our... |
Here is a paradigm of +xit with first person plural benefactee, strong stem (note the marking of third person subject):
| benefactee | strong stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -xʷ | kʷu miƛ̓xtxʷ. | You painted it for us. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -s | miƛ̓xts. | She painted it for us. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -p | kʷu miƛ̓xtp. | You folks painted it for us. |
| kʷu | miƛ̓+xt | -m | kʷu miƛ̓xtm. | They painted it for us. |
Here is a paradigm of +xít with first plural person benefactee, weak stem:
| benefactee | weak stem | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -xʷ | kʷu ʕacxítxʷ. | You tied it for us. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -s | kʷu ʕacxíts. | She tied it for us. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -p | kʷu ʕacxítp. | You folks tied it for us. |
| kʷu | ʕac+xít | -m | kʷu ʕacxítm. | They tied it for us. |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person plural possessor, strong stem (note the marking of first person plural subject):
| strong stem | possessor | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -ɬm | -n | miƛ̓ɬmn. | I painted you all's... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -ɬm | -s | miƛ̓ɬms. | She painted you all's... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -ɬm | -t | miƛ̓ɬmt. | We painted you all's... |
| miƛ̓+ɬt | -ɬm | -s-lx | miƛ̓ɬmslx. | They painted you all's... |
Here is a paradigm of +ɬt with second person plural possessor, weak stem (note the loss of stem +xt):
| weak stem | possessor | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac+ɬt | -ɬúlm | -n | ʕacɬúlmn. | I tied you all's... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -ɬúlm | -s | ʕacɬúlms. | He tied you all's... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -ɬúlm | -t | ʕacɬúlmt. | We tieed you all's... |
| ʕac+ɬt | -ɬúlm | -s-lx | ʕacɬúlmslx. | They tied you all's... |
Here is a paradigm of +xit with second person plural benefactee, strong stem (note the loss of stem +xt):
| strong stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| miƛ̓+xt | -ɬm | -n | miƛ̓ɬmn. | I painted it for you all. |
| miƛ̓+xt | -ɬm | -s | miƛ̓ɬms. | He painted it for you all. |
| miƛ̓+xt | -ɬm | -t | miƛ̓ɬmt. | We painted it for you all. |
| miƛ̓+xt | -ɬm | -s-lx | miƛ̓ɬmslx. | They painted it for you all. |
Here is a paradigm of +xit with second person plural benefactee, weak stem (note the loss of stem +xt):
| weak stem | benefactee | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʕac+xít | -ɬúlm | -n | ʕacɬúlmn. | I tied it for you all. |
| ʕac+xít | -ɬúlm | -s | ʕacɬúlms. | He tied it for you all. |
| ʕac+xít | -ɬúlm | -t | ʕacɬúlmt. | We tied it for you all. |
| ʕac+xít | -ɬúlm | -s-lx | ʕacɬúlmslx. | They tied if for you all. |
Sample +tuɬt forms. These are always strong:
| weak stem | indirect object | subject marker | full form | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| cnmaʔkstúɬt | -Ø | -n | cnmaʔkstúɬtn | I showed her how to do it |
| cnmaʔkstúɬt | -Ø | -xʷ | cnmaʔkstúɬtxʷ | You showed her how to do it |
| cnmaʔkstúɬt | -Ø | -xʷ | cnmaʔkstúɬtxʷ | You showed her how to do it |
| cnmaʔkstúɬtxʷ | kʷu‿ | -xʷ | kʷu‿cnmaʔkstúɬtxʷ | You showed me how to do it |
| cnmaʔkstúɬtm | -Ø | -m | cnmaʔkstúɬtxʷm | We showed her how to do it |
Nominalized transitive stems As described above, transitive stems can be made intransitive (nominalized) and inflected as double intransitives.
In this chart I give examples of each of the five types of nominalized transitives.
| trans | example in context | kʷu set | i- set | transitive stem | +m | translation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| +nt | lut kʷu akskmálx̌aʔmnəm. | kʷu | a- | ks-k+málx̌aʔ+m+n(t) | +m | Don't lie about me! |
| +nt | t̓i istkʷəsəscínəmnəm. | Ø | i- | s-t+kʷs•scin+m+n(t) | +m | I was just joking with him. |
| +st | kʷu ascpáqmstəm. | kʷu | a- | sc-paq+m+st | +m | You punished me. | +st | kʷ iksk̓ʷúl̕əmstəm. | kʷ | i- | ks-k̓ʷul̕+m+st | +m | I’m going to make you work. |
| +ɬt | kʷ iksɬkím̓ɬtəm anlasmíst. | kʷ | i- | ks-ɬkím̓+ɬt | +m | I'm going to sew your shirt. |
| +ɬt | taɬt kʷu akɬʔúkʷɬtəm. | kʷu | a- | k-ɬ+ʔúkʷ+ɬt | +m | Bring it back to me! |
| +xt | kʷ iksənɬəxʷpúsxtəm. | kʷ | i- | ks-n+ɬxʷ+pus+xt | +m | I’m going to boil it for you. |
| +xt | kʷu aksk̓ʷúl̕xtəm t ikɬcítxʷ. | kʷu | a- | ks-k̓ʷúl̕+xt | +m | I want you to fix a house for me. |
| +tuɬt | ixíʔ aksqʷəlqʷəltúɬtəm | Ø | a- | ks-qʷl•qʷl+tuɬt | +m | You want to teach your children about it. |
To be continued